Time Travel - 2080 Words

Time Travel Mark Jacob de Paz Course: Comm 2 Instructor: Mrs. Noemi Agner Date: March 14, 2011 2 Time Travel Thesis Statement Time travel is possible. Outline: Time travel A. Definition of time travel B. Origins of the concept Theories about time travel A. Time travel forwards 1. Time dilation 2. Time perception B. Time travel backwards 1. Using wormholes 2. Special spacetime geometries Philosophical understandings A. Grandfather paradox B. Novikov self-consistency principle Conclusion 3 Time Travel People often wish that they could go back to the past and correct their wrong behaviors or go to the future and see what it turns out to be like. The idea of time travel has been the†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"In 1915, Einstein developed his ideas to form the General Theory of Relativity, in which he considered objects that were being accelerated with respect to one another. He compared the forces of acceleration and gravity and found them to be indistinguishable. For example, an astronaut standing in a rocket on a launch pad would feel himself pressed against the floor because of gravity. If the same rocket was in outer space and not affected by gravity, but with its engines turned on so that it was accelerating, the astronaut would again be pressed against the floor. If the acceleration due to the engines were the same as the acceleration due to gravity, the astronaut would have no way of telling whether the rocket was at rest on the earth or accelerating in outer space u nless the looked out of the window. Einstein stated that the attraction to the Earth of a rocket that is resting on a launch pad is equivalent to the acceleration of the rocket. So although in three-dimensional space, the rocket remains stationary, in four-dimensional space-time the rocket is in motion along its world line. The upshot of this motion in space-time is that gravity also makes time run slower†( Kulkarni, 2011). What are the kinds of time travel and what are the ways that will help scientists prove that time travel is possible? The two kinds of time travel are time travel forwards and time travel backwards, which will be made through timeShow MoreRelatedEssay Time Travel989 Words   |  4 Pages Time travel is feat thought by most to be impossible. After all time travel is what many science fiction movies are made of. Let us not forget such movies as â€Å"Back to the Future† or â€Å"The Time Machine.† Yet unlike those movies time travel is not necessarily fiction. â€Å"We are in our own time machines, our hearts are pumping blood, were breathing, we are existing through time (at least until our own personal time machines seriously malfunction).† (Need help citing this!) Still surrounding this topicRead MoreTime Travel : Or Apocalyptic?1579 Words   |  7 PagesTime Travel: or Apocalyptic: Science Fiction We have discussed, over the semester, several different common themes of science fiction. But there are three common themes of science fiction that stick out the most when reading the novel, The Transall Saga by Gary Paulsen, which would be extreme environmental changes, time traveling, and post-apocalyptic situations. The bluish-white light that transport Mark through time, thousands of years into the future and the way the people look with their webbedRead MoreIs Time Travel Possible?2057 Words   |  9 PagesIs Time Travel Possible? Introduction Time Travel is a concept that has fascinated me and many others throughout time, using the question of ‘Is Time Travel Possible?’ also asked by many others in the world today. I will research what time travel is, how it can be done, and if and when it could be possible to develop my understanding of the concept then state my views and opinions on time travel. What is Time travel? Time travel is a concept of movement between different points in time usuallyRead MoreTime Travel Is Not Only Possible? Essay2401 Words   |  10 PagesTime travel has long been a fascination of the science fiction genre, with many of the great stories concerning time travel being centred around the philosophical issues of the paradoxes seemingly caused by just the possibility of time travel, namely that of bootstrap and grandfather paradoxes. A question that is often bandied about is whether or not time travel is possible, now unless those questioning are physicists attempting to warp space-time back upon its self-using long equations and ‘TardisRead MoreSummary : Time Travel Paradox2138 Words   |  9 PagesTIME TRAVEL PARADOX A paradox is a proposition that leads to a conclusion that seems somewhat senseless or logically unacceptable despite apparently sounding reasonable from acceptable premises. The statement may also seemingly sound self-contradictory or even absurd but when investigated or explained may prove to be genuine and quite well founded. Some paradoxes may be considered invaluable arguments but still play a significant role in promoting critical thinking. Paradoxes have led to the revelationRead MoreIs Time Travel Possible? Essay1918 Words   |  8 PagesWho, Star Gate, Bill and Ted’s Excellent Adventure, Terminator, The Time Machine, and so on so forth. These movies and TV shows have one thing and common witch as your can guess is time travel. But if you look at each single one separate not one time travel is the same from the other. Before we begin we shall learn what time travel is. Time travel is when one person, matter, or object moves in a three dimensional direction in time. Th e three dimensions are length, width and height but for this explanationRead MoreEssay on Time Travel666 Words   |  3 PagesTime Travel First of all, to give you a better concept of time I will use a personal theory of mine. When you look up at the sky at night, at the stars, what are you seeing? Do you think that collage of stars actually exists? Most of them do not. When you look at the sky at night you are seeing the past because it takes an obscene amount of time for the light from those stars to reach earth, and in that time those stars may have disappeared. It works both ways. When an inhabitant, if thereRead MoreCan There Be Time Travel Without Paradox? Essay2418 Words   |  10 PagesCan there be time travel without paradox? Time travel has long been a fascination of the science fiction genre, with many of the great stories concerning time travel being centred around the philosophical issues of the paradoxes seemingly caused by just the possibility of time travel, namely that of bootstrap and grandfather paradoxes. A question that is often bandied about is whether or not time travel is possible, now unless those questioning are physicists attempting to warp space-time back uponRead MoreThe Theory Of Time Travel1344 Words   |  6 PagesUniverse indexing is an interesting theory on how time travellers might avoid the Grandfather Paradox . It does solve a lot of problems time travellers would encounter if other theories were true, and due to this fact is quite popular to debate. Many authors such as Terry Pratchett and Stephen King have used the Multiverse Theory in their books, and even popular television shows, such as Doctor Who, use it within their narratives. In this essay I will first explain wha t universe indexing isRead MoreThe Value of Time Travel Essay663 Words   |  3 PagesPeople have often thought of going back in time because of regrets or mistakes they want to fix in the past. The only way to go to the past is time travel there. Time travel has been know as science fiction but now scientist have been believing time travel is possible based on the physics laws. If time travel is possible, then will it be helpful for human begins to go back to the past. Time travel can’t be worth it because if you change something in the past, it will affect a lot in your future

The Application Of Sound Risk Management Procedures Within...

Risk Assessment - Perimeter Fence The application of sound risk management procedures within an organisation is fundamental to the success of that organisation. Risk Management supports the management team in making sound decisions towards the effective use of resources, while minimising loses caused by unexpected events (Pearse Trust 2012). As such, Joe’s Transport Company has developed a comprehensive Risk Management policy which has been used to assess the upcoming perimeter fence project. In accordance with the risk management policy, all identified hazards have been reported, along with an explanation of the five hazards with an inherent risk rating of High or Extreme. Furthermore, the single greatest risk to the company has been†¦show more content†¦In line with this policy, further detail has been provided on identified hazards with an inherent risk rating of High or Extreme. Striking of overhead powerlines Overhead power lines run parallel with the northern border of the compound at a height of 5 meters. Current risk controls include the existing compound fence, Standard Operating Procedures which detail requirements for working near the northern fence line, signage, and regular inspections. However, the construction of the new perimeter fence will require access to the area surrounding the overhead powerlines and the use of a small crane making some of the current risk controls ineffective. As such, the hazard has been assigned a likelihood level of Possible. Such an occurrence could result in death or permanent total disability, giving the risk a consequence level of Major. Thus, the hazard has an inherent risk rating of High (12). Striking of underground pipes Gas and sewerage pipes run underground throughout the compound. Current risk controls protecting the underground pipes include the sealed bitumen yard, Standard Operating Procedures which detail the use of equipment and digging near the unsealed fence line, signage, and regular inspections. However, these risk controls are deemed ineffective for the current task. As steel fence posts are to be dug in at aShow MoreRelatedQuestions On Procurement Desktop Defense Operations1643 Words   |  7 Pagesservices required to accomplish the mission worldwide. Therefore, the proper application of the information assurance (IA) principles is vital in order to create a secure environment. To accomplish the aforementioned goal, the research will provide a comprehensive IA plan that addresses the main issues related with the operations of PD2 in cyberspace. PD2 ultimate goal of PD2 is to provide business efficient procedures that can be replicated through the entire DoD. According to Willett (2008)Read MoreSecurity And Security In Security1405 Words   |  6 Pagesmind, sensitive information must be kept within close safe guards. Failure to protect vital information may facilitate its retrieval by criminals or those with malicious intents to use that data unethically. Individuals with access to material non-public information may sell that information to an outside party for profit. Likewise, these individuals may harvest this data within their perimeters to use as ammunition to defraud or blackmail an organization. Employers need to be wary of the threatRead MoreSocial Networking, E Commerce, Information Systems, It Risk Management Essay1215 Words   |  5 PagesThe purpose of this report is to understand the following topics which are Social networking, E commerce, information systems, IT risk management and how they have influenced the modern day business organizations in terms of Promoting their business through social networks, how important to have a risk man agement plan in an organization, and how Ecommerce has become essential part of the business, also The value of information system is for the people of the modern world. Introduction Social Networks:-Read MoreAccounting Information - Article Review1580 Words   |  7 Pagesbenefits and risks of doing business in the cloud. Benefits are that, the implementation process can be done very quickly especially if a business has multiply locations. The initial costs are usually low because vendors offer their services to multiply customers that share in the cost. In most cases there is little or no cost for hardware or maintenance cost because the vendor takes care of maintaining the software and servers. As for the risk, businesses need to analyze the applications and optionsRead MoreQuestions On The And Law1021 Words   |  5 PagesWhen deliberating upon legal quandaries law students and attorneys engage upon a five-component process to scrutinize all the dynamics of a legal premise(s). Litigators and law students denote this process as IRAC (Issue, Rule, Application, and Conclusion). Therefore, IRAC is simply the blueprint for analyzing a legal dispute. Whil e legal dilemmas can become tedious, time-consuming, overwhelming, and extremely complex, IRAC methodology can make the process somewhat easier. Hence, IRAC processRead MoreThe Australia Government Information Security Manual1678 Words   |  7 Pagesclassified into three records focusing on different levels within any company, making the ISM available to more customers and advertising information security attention across government. The Safety Protection Plan Structure (Protective Security Policy Framework) provides the appropriate control for the Australia government to secure its people, details and resources, at home and international. The diagram below represents the security organization structure Given the expanding dependence on InformationRead MoreInformation Technology Audit1278 Words   |  6 Pagesaudit, or information systems audit, is an examination of the controls within an Information technology (IT) infrastructure. IT auditing is a branch of general auditing concerned with governance (control) of information and communications technologies (computers). IT auditors primarily study computer systems and networks from the point of view of examining the effectiveness of their technical and procedural controls to minimise risks. IT audits are also known as automated data processing (ADP) auditsRead MoreDisaster Recovery Plan1491 Words   |  6 PagesDisaster Recovery Plan Disaster Recovery Plan Provide an overview of the organization that will be delivered to senior management, defining the business goals and objectives and the size, layout, and structure of the organization. TechWidgets Inc., is an e-commerce company that provides merchandise to its customers through a web store. The core infrastructure is made up of 10 web servers in a single cluster to handle browsing requests, 5 servers in the web store clusters to hand transactionsRead MoreInternal Control and Risk Evaluation1143 Words   |  5 PagesInternal Control and Risk Evaluation Accounting Information Systems 542 October 10, 2011 Analyze the risks in the systems that your team analyzed An Accounting Information System is an integral part of the new design of Kudler’s computer system. Accountants do not necessarily need to understand completely how computers process data of the accounting application, but it is essential for them to understand the flowcharts and documentation that shows how this processing works. The purposeRead MoreInformation Security Standards For An Organization1405 Words   |  6 PagesInformation Security Standards for an Organization 1. Introduction. In 1958 the National Aeronautics and Space Act established as the civilian agency that would control the United States space and aeronautical activities. From the beginning of the agency it has been on the cutting edge of technology from rockets to computer control centers and communication that would reach outside of our world. With the growing number of computers that were being used throughout the government and the amount

Criminology Free Essays

All the actors are using a technique to evaluate the situation, statistics to determine who the possible suspect Is, and unique skills to help find where this person may be. Criminology Is the study of crime Its causes, its history, and Its prevention. Criminologists have many other disciplines, because they also study the psychology of criminals, the social contexts that give rise to crime in specific geographical and demographical locations, and the systems of punishment that serve to confine or perpetuate criminal activity. We will write a custom essay sample on Criminology or any similar topic only for you Order Now Crime and punishment function uniquely In each society. Therefore, criminologists concerned with crime theory are interested in comparing crime trends in different societies. The study of criminology is a very interesting major in the fact that it deals with the human brain yet it also plays a huge role in helping keep the community safe, I think that’s what fascinates me the most. When I took the personality test my result was NEFF. In the understanding me portion of the results It says, People Like me are very outgoing, enthusiastic, and spontaneous. I love meeting new people and probably have a large circle of friends ND acquaintances. Since I am always on the go and seem to have boundless energy, I am usually up for any new experience and especially love surprises! I am very curious, ask a lot of questions, and are fascinated by people or things that are out of the ordinary. Because of my vivid imagination, I have many ideas a day and am great at finding creative ways of solving problems or overcoming obstacles. I love to talk – especially about fun or interesting possibilities. People enjoy my unusual sense of humor and find me fun to be around. I pride myself on my uniqueness. I am also a insensitive and empathetic person who often has accurate Insights about others. My friends know I am devoted and affectionate and that I feel things very deeply, even If I don’t always show It. But I may also take correctly personally and find my feelings are easily hurt. When I have a lot of details to remember or projects to manage, I may become overwhelmed or discouraged. In fact, my curiosity often distracts me from the more routine parts of projects and I probably find that staying organized is one of the hardest things for me to do. Making decisions is also a struggle because there re so many interesting options calling to me at once. Whatever career I choose, it has to be something I believe in or I won’t be able to stick with it for very long. This is one of the main reasons I choose to study Criminology it is a fast pace very interesting Job that will catch my interest and keep me going. My strengths are Impressing people with my quickness and creativity. Anticipating the â€Å"right† answers people are looking for. Developing rapport easily, and changing gears quickly. Thinking quickly on my feet and articulating my strengths effectively. Networking effectively to create helpful relationships. My weakness’ are not following have checked out all of my options. Being too idealistic and setting unrealistic goals. Not being very organized and not using my time well. Exaggerating or not being completely accurate with facts. For a career that would satisfy me it would have to let me work with lots of interesting creative people. Allow me to use my creativity to solve problems. Involve work that is fun, challenging, and always varied. Let me work at my own pace and schedule, with a minimum of rules or supervision. Be consistent with my personal values. Be done in an environment that is friendly, relaxed, and appreciates humor. Rarely requires me to be responsible for lots of details. Use my imagination to create products or services that help people. The median pay is about $74,960 per year and $34. 04 per hour. The entry education level is a master’s degree. There does not need to be work experience in a related occupation or on-the-Job training. Number of Jobs in 2012 was 2,600. The Job growth is growing by 15% which is faster than average. This is a full time Job during regular business hours. Criminologist typically work in an office. They occasionally may work outside the office to conduct research through interviews or observations or present search results. The best way to get into this Job field is to have an advanced degree, strong statistical and research skills and a background in applied sociology. Criminologist would typically need a sociologist master’s degree or Ph. D. There are two types of sociology master’s degree programs: traditional programs and applied, clinical, and professional programs. Traditional programs prepare students to enter a Ph. D. Program. Applied, clinical, and professional programs prepare students to enter the professional workplace, teaching them the necessary analytical skills to perform sociological research in a reflections setting. Many students who complete a Ph. D. In sociology become postsecondary teachers. Other Ph. D. Graduates often become research sociologists for nonprofits, businesses, and governments. Courses in research methods and statistics are important for both master’s and Ph. D. Candidates. Many programs also offer opportunities to gain experience through internships or by preparing reports for clients. Although some graduates with a bachelor’s degree find work as sociology research assistants, most find positions in other fields, such as social services, administration, management, or sales and marketing. I plan to start my Journey through the criminology at DVD and then try to get into Sac State or US Davis. I think that Criminology is such an interesting major and topic that it will keep my interest, and it is expanding at a great rate 15% is the projected for the future. The fact that it deals with the human brain yet it also plays a huge role in helping keep the community safe, I think that’s what fascinates me the most. I believe I will strive in this Job force and be able to really succeed in this Job field. How to cite Criminology, Papers Criminology Free Essays Criminology CJA/314 February 14, 2013 Criminology Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. Criminology is the scientific approach to studying criminal behavior (Bryant Peck, 2007). â€Å"Criminology is a multidisciplinary science. We will write a custom essay sample on Criminology or any similar topic only for you Order Now In addition to criminology, criminologists hold degrees in a variety of diverse fields, including sociology, criminal justice, political science, psychology, public policy, economics, and the natural sciences† (Siegel, 2010, para 3). History of Criminology Sir Robert Peel brought the English concept of policing and theories to include the principles of policing. This started the history of policing and criminology in America. This led to early attempts to explain crime scientifically, efforts that began in the late 18th century and continued until the end of the 19th century, when the term ‘criminology’ finally came into use, and the field became a discipline. Primary purpose for criminology Criminology Criminology is a form of knowledge viewing crime as a social phenomenon (Luckenbill, Miller, 2007). The intention of criminology is the development of a form of common and tested principles and of other types of knowledge concerning this process of law, treatment, and crime. The reason for introducing theories The important aspect about theories is that they are needed to live and to live better. Theories let us to develop and test solutions to problems we come across in life. Theorists use the scientific process to test their theories. They assemble data, generate a hypotheses—testable beliefs of behavior that can be obtained from the theory and test them using valid experiential research procedures. Around the end of the nineteenth century, a new vision of the world tested the legitimacy of classical theory and ffered a modern way of looking at the causes of crime (Siegel, 2010). Classical school Classical Criminology The classical school was established during the eighteenth century in Europe. The classical school point of view of crime is a rational means for maximizing self-interest. Neoclassical Criminology In neoclassical criminology, punishment is seen as providing both a deterrent and just deserts. Just deserts implies that criminal offen ders deserve the punishment they receive and that any criminal punishment meted out should be suitable to the type and seriousness of the crime perpetrated. Biological Theories Early Positivism Studying the behavior of the criminal is the first genuine concern represented by positivism. Positivism looks for ways to find those factors that cause the criminal conduct and remove (or treat) them, If the conduct were socially undesirable, individuals demonstrating them should be treated and returned to normalcy. Psychological and sociological theories as well as biological theories represents positivism. Positivism has had a huge effect on the way criminological theories have been shaped and the way that research has been conducted. Constitutional Constitutional factors such as Gender, age, body type, observable physical characteristics, intelligence, and personality play a role in crime. Constitutional factors influence a person to specific types of behavior and that social reaction to such behavior may determine, to a large degree, the form of continued behavior (Schmalleger, 2009,). Psychological/Psychiatric Theories Model Theory A form of social learning theory modeling theory emphasizes that people learn how to act by watching others. They must learn the aggressive behavior. Psychoanalytic Criminology Psychological theories gained popularity around the turn of 20th century, the dominance of sociological theories overshadowed biological and psychological theories of crime. Psychological theories of crime view individual difference in conduct make certain people likely to commit criminal conduct. This theory also claims that an environmental factor has initiated an internal response to the personality of the individual and that environmental factor is the cause that permits the individual to engage in immoral and criminal conduct. Several psychological descriptions tend to indicate numerous personality attributes displayed by offenders that if recognized early could foresee future criminal conduct. Social Structure Approaches Social Disorganization The importance of analyzing social structure itself became firmly grounded when the government’s New Deal reform efforts focused on rearranging society. Culture Conflict Also called cultural deviance theory culture conflict theory suggests a clash of values between differently socialized groups over what is acceptable or proper behavior is the root cause of criminality. Basically a clash between the social values of the middle-class and the conduct standards of other classes. Conduct standards can be defined as the day-to-day rules that govern the behavior of these social classes. History has shown that adherence to conduct standards often results in a clash with the mainstream culture (Lyman Potter, 2007). Social Process Theories Social Learning Social learning theory focuses more on the behavior and presents a familiar treatment or remedy for deviance. Learning theory is also aimed toward individuals in order to explain how individuals come to take part in criminal behavior. Social Control Social control theory is not new. It is a theoretical approach most closely match’s the public’s idea of why people become criminals. People tend to believe that a person becomes criminal for a variety of reason, associating with the wrong friends, an inadequate upbringing, an absence of religion, or a deficiency of education, social control theory reflects that belief. Social control theory takes a view of human nature that accepts deviance is natural (Williams McShane, 2011). Social Conflict Theories Conflict Theories Conflict theories, are based on the notion that people hold conflicting values and disagreement is common. Often pointed to as evidence of a conflict orientation are laws that seem to benefit only small groups of a selected few or powerful business owners (Williams McShane, 2011). Radical Criminology Radical criminology holds that the causes of crime are rooted in Social conditions that give power to the wealthy and the politically well-organized but exclude those that are less fortunate (Schmalleger, 2009,) . Economic conditions are also critical to many radical theories. During periods of economic depression and recession, unemployment is among the most common of the factors assumed to be associated with crime. Industry must reconcile a threat to its survival with downsizing its labor force. â€Å"A preliminary version of radical conflict theories is characterized by the work of William Chambliss in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Chambliss became interested in the making of law and the process by which it was applied. † (Williams McShane, 2011) Conclusion The study of criminology theory is a chance to examine and evaluate the way others have looked at crime throughout history. Statistics on crime are essential to criminology. They help establish the basic social facts of the crime. Criminologists are interested in answering questions about how crime should be defined, why crime occurs, and how societies seek to control crime. The history of modern criminology, which can be traced to the early nineteenth century, has not produced definitive answers to these questions. Today, the quest to understand crime is as close to us as the latest newspaper headlines and television reports. Theory is not just a popular belief, opinion, or value-driven explanation. Instead, theory is a product of the scientific approach (Williams McShane, 2011). References Bryant, C. D. , Peck, D. L. (2007). Criminology. 21st Century Sociology, 1-2(), 390-399. doi:10. 4135/9781412939645. n39 Crutchfield, R. D. , Kubrin, C. (2001). Criminology. In Encyclopedia of Sociology (2nd ed. , Vol. 1, pp. 527-539). New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved from http://go. galegroup. com. ezproxy. apollolibrary. com/ps/i. do? id=GALE%7CCX3404400080v=2. 1u=uphoenixit=rp=GVRLsw=w Lyman, M. D. , Potter, G. W. ( 2007 ). Organized Crime (4th ed. ). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database. Luckenbill, D. , Miller, K. (2007). Criminology. In C. Bryant, D. Peck (Eds. ), 21st century sociology. (pp. I-390-I-399). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10. 4135/9781412939645. n39 Schmalleger, F. (2009). Criminology Today. An Integrative Introduction (6th ed. ). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database Siegel, L. J. (2010). Criminology. Theories, Patterns, and Typologies, (10th ed. ). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database. Williams, F. P. , McShane, M. D. (2011). Criminological Theory (5th ed. ). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database. How to cite Criminology, Papers Criminology Free Essays A modern day courtroom is more of a stage than a decided place whereby decisions are made based on the legal applications of current statutes and laws. Too often, cases are presented by highly-experienced and qualified prosecutors against rookie public defenders with minimal courtroom experience. This is the equivalent of putting a toddler into a ring with a sumo-wrestler. We will write a custom essay sample on Criminology or any similar topic only for you Order Now Decisions are made in courts based on who is the most convincing, not by what is legally provided. The eloquent tones and savvy dialects used by experienced attorneys serenade the ears of the jury members. A defendant’s guilt in serious cases involving heinous crimes and despicable acts is regularly determined by a jury’s level of shock combined with their subconscious ability to assume the worst (Hostettler, 2004). The modern day jury prides themselves on being god-like as someone’s fate rests in their hands. There is no way to be certain that a jury’s decision is not biased (Hostettler, 2004). A judge is in charge of instructing the jury before deliberations begin. These instructions are to include what information can be used and not used in determining one’s guilt or innocence. Unfortunately, today’s legal system is much the same as it was in the Middle Ages. The weapons are the only thing that has changed. Razor-like forked tongues are being used as the modern day swords, and physical torture has been replaced with psychological torture and trauma, and life sentences in a solitary environment are the new death penalty. References Hostettler, J.   (2004). The criminal jury old and new: jury power from early times to the present   day.   Portland, OR:   Waterside Press. How to cite Criminology, Papers Criminology Free Essays Question #1: List and discuss the subareas of the criminological enterprise. The criminological enterprise includes such sub-areas as criminal statistics, the sociology of law, theory construction, criminal behavior systems, penology, victimology, conflict view, and interactonist view of crime. Criminologists believe in one of three perspectives: the consensus view, the conflict view, and the interactionist view of crime. We will write a custom essay sample on Criminology or any similar topic only for you Order Now The conflict view of crime depicts society aqs a collection of diverse groups- business owners, workers, professionals, and students who are in constant and continuing conflict. The consensus views of crime are behaviors believed to be repugnant to all elements of society. The laws are thought to be written code that defines crimes and their punishments, reflects the values, beliefs and opinions of society’s mainstream. The term consensus is used because it implies that there is a general agreement among the majority of citizens on what behaviors should be outlawed and viewed as crimes. The interactionist view of crime holds that people act according to their own interpretations of reality, through which they assign meaning to things; they observe the way others react, either positively or negatively; and they reevaluate and interpret their own behavior according to the meaning and symbols they have learned from others. There is no objective reality and people, institutions, and events are viewed subjectively and labeled either good or evil according to the interpretation of the evaluator. Question #2: Explain the conflict view of crime. The conflict view of crime can be summed up by exploring the fundamental causes of crime. It is widely popular that the social and economic forces of society dictate what defines crime. Many believe the criminal justice system and criminal law are thought to be operating on behalf of the rich and power social elites. This assumption is derived by the philosophy to control the poor by establishing policies critiqued towards standards of morality and good behavior. Keep in mind that this theory was created by the dominate class of organized society. The idea is to emphasize good behavior by keeping the poor (have-not) from taking from the rich. In a capitalist society, many groups can feel marginalized, creating a feeling of being unequal, unimportant, or powerless. This is believed to lead certain groups to find equality by turning to crime to obtain the material wealth they cannot afford. The poor, on the other hand, argue that the rich and powerful use their money/position to further their interests and by doing so do it at the expense of the interest of others. They compare the harsh punishments the lower class receives for their minor crime with the rather lenient punishments that the upper class receives. For example, a business owner who commits tax fraud may get off easy by paying fines while a lower class citizen may go to prison for stealing a TV. Question #3: Discuss the social goals the government hopes to achieve by outlawing unacceptable behaviors. The goals the government hopes to achieve by outlawing unacceptable behaviors is to simply try and allow all people to live fairly and peacefully. Harmony amongst the populations is priceless because it allows us all to go about our daily activities without worrying about being robbed, murdered, or violated by our fellow citizens on a daily basis. By outlawing bad behavior, for example, robbery, allows society to expand in a number of areas economically. We are able to open restaurants, malls, banks, etc. and this allows for the flow of trade and economic advancement. Without laws in place, these businesses would fear to have thousands of dollars of merchandise in place in fear that anyone with evil intent can take what they want with no repercussion. In short, outlawing bad behavior gives the public a sense of peace knowing that their safety and property is not only valued in their minds, but by the public as a whole. We are able to live in harmony for the most and when those who choose to violate others, are charged accordingly to provide justice to all. How to cite Criminology, Papers Criminology Free Essays This essay will attempt to explain a crime chosen from an article by applying a criminological theory. The article chosen is ‘Girl in critical condition after fire that killed mother and siblings’. The writer of the article describes the events of a suspected arson attack that killed five members of the family after their home was set alight. We will write a custom essay sample on Criminology or any similar topic only for you Order Now The article then mentions another suspected arson incident that caused damage to a car belonging to a family living opposite the victims, which appears to have been set alight at the same time (The Guardian, 2012). The theory that will be applied to this article in an attempt to explain arson is Merton’s strain theory. The Oxford Dictionary defines arson as ‘the criminal act of deliberately setting fire to property’ (Oxford Dictionary, 2012). The statistics show that large proportion of arsonists have a lower social background and are predominately young adult males (Home Office, 2011). Merton believed that criminal activity is thus the result of strain between culturally encouraged goals and the legitimate means of achieving them (Newburn, 2007). The ‘American Dream’ makes an individual believe that they live in meritocracy where everyone has equal opportunity to succeed if they work and study. Unfortunately, the reality is that the socially approved means of achieving the financial success are not equally distributed (Carrabine et al, 2009). Causing the working class males to seek alternative, and therefore, illegitimate means of achieving these goals or lashing out and deliberately setting fire to public and private property. The article previously mentioned states two suspected acts of arson, but because it happened to two neighbours it eliminates revenge as a motive as well as hate crime since the two neighbours were of different cultural backgrounds. Thus, strain theory can successfully explain arson committed by an individual frustrated by the status quo who took their frustrations out by vandalism, arson and damage (The Guardian, 2012; Lilly et al, 2011). Another possible way to explain arson is by using the social learning theory. Social learning theory was based on Bandura’s research and is best known by the Bobo doll experiment. Bandura proposed that human behaviour is learned at a cognitive level when a child imitates a behaviour they witnessed by others and will be especially influenced to mimic that behaviour if they are of high status to them. His aim of his research was to see whether children learned violent and criminal behaviour by observing aggression and imitating their role models’ actions (McLaughlin et al, 2003; Morrison, 1995). Explanation of crime, such as arson, could be found through the observed and consequently, learned behaviour of a family members, peers or role models on the TV. Observational learning is primarily influential if those who model the behaviour are perceived to be rewarded for it. The BoBo doll experiment confirms this as when a child witnessed the model being punished he/she was least likely to copy the behaviour than when seeing the model was being rewarded with praise for their behaviour. This effectively explains arson in the young males as rappers, actors and video games have an overwhelming effect on the young person’s behaviour (Newburn, 2007; Rock, 2007). In conclusion, strain theory can explain arson in terms of individuals frustration created by the socially approved goals and the unavailable legitimate means of achieving the goal. While, social learning theory explains arson by proving the behaviour is learned by observing models. However, both the theories fail to take into account individual differences. Bibliography: 1. Carrabine, E. , Cox, P. , Lee, M. , Plummer, K. and South, N. , (2009) Criminology: a sociological introduction (2nd edition), London, Routledge 2. Hill, A. 2012), ‘Girl in critical condition after fire that killed mother and siblings’, The Guardian, 17th October, 2012, p. 12 3. Home Office, (2011), Criminal damage and arson effective practice. Available at: http://www. homeoffice. gov. uk/publications/effective-practice/crime-effective-practice/criminal-damage-arson (Accessed: 17th October, 2012). 4. Lilly, J. Robert, Cullen, Francis T. , and Ball, Richard A. (2011), Criminological Theory: Context a nd Consequences (4th edition), London, SAGE Publications 5. McLaughlin, E. , Muncie, J. and Hughes, G. eds) (2003), Criminological Perspectives: Essential Readings (2nd edition), London, SAGE Publications 6. Morrison, W. , (1995), Theoretical Criminology: from modernity to post-modernism, London, Cavendish 7. Newburn, T. (2007), Criminology, Devon, Willan Publishing 8. Oxford Dictionary Online, (2012), Arson. Available at: http://oxforddictionaries. com/definition/english/arson , (Accessed 18th October, 2012). 9. Rock, P. (2007), ‘Sociological theories of crime’ in Maguire, M. , Morgan, R. and Reiner R. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (4th edition), OUP How to cite Criminology, Essay examples Criminology Free Essays Criminology in the Future Roseland Cervantes-Barilla, Heather Arthur Dreamer, Andrea Patella, Samaritan Asparagus, and Everett Titus CA 314 August 18, 2014 Paula Rootstock Crime fighting techniques are always evolving; which will help decrease crime rate over time. There are new crime-fighting methodologies developed and improved on every day; biometrics, cybercafà © spare, and DNA collection programs. Criminology has evolved greatly, however policies from the past are still used today; such as the Classical Schools concept. We will write a custom essay sample on Criminology or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, there have been many improvements in the policies in the past. Theories are developed and expanded on concerning why individuals commit crimes, such as the social learning theory and social structure theory. Although these methods help reduce crime and possibly detect criminal activity, some theories and crime-fighting methodologies violate civil liberty. Future of Crime Fighting Crime is a major part of our history, present, and our future. People are not perfect, and the world is a cruel place for people to live in now days. The future is what we need to look to, and our future is in the hands of ourselves. It is our Job to ensure that we do have a future and that our children have a safe place to live as they grow up as well. It’s important for us to take action now, that way in the future hopefully things will be better. It will not be an easy road to go down but it is one we need to go down non-the-less. Nothing is easy in life, and we have to stand up and fight for the things we want; otherwise crime will overrun the streets and spiral out of hand. Crime-fighting Methodologies Although, we need to ensure the safety of the people, the future of crime fighting needs to be mindful of an individual’s rights as well. It will take professional work, and expertise to overcome this hard road. The most-important issue when it comes future policies of crime fighting is the safety of the citizens. One of the biggest social issues of the future will be the internet. We already have a start to the future with tools like fingerprinting, facial recognition, voice recognition, and iris scans. All these things are crucial aspects to the crime fighting fields. DNA testing is another major way of identification that can’t be altered. Through the years, technology has grown and has developed. It has helped ensure public safety in many ways, it also has helped state and local communities better use existing technology. It has improved criminal records and identification systems to keep high-risk individuals from locating weapons or positions of trust. There are many databases used by the criminal Justice system from the combined DNA Index system, biometrics, cybercafà © spare and others. DNA Testing The combined DNA index system is a useful tool in solving crimes. In 1998, it was officially initiated it allowed participating forensic laboratories to compare DNA roofless with the main purpose to match case evidence to other unrelated cases or to other persons that have been already convicted of specific crimes. DNA can be very useful when solving crimes one of two ways. When a suspect is identified, a sample of their DNA can be compared to evidence of the crime scene. In the case where there is no suspect that has been identified, evidence that is left from the crime scene can be analyzed and compared to profiles in the DNA database to help identify the perpetrator. There have been many controversy about obtaining DNA the con in n article by Generated titled â€Å"Retreating Justice†; â€Å"storing DNA taken from unsuspected individuals in a criminal database undermines presumptive innocence and sets a chilling precedent for data collection by the government of its citizens. In addition, it violates the rights of people to be secure and protected from ‘unreasonable searches and seizures’ as is guaranteed by the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution. † (http://UCLA. Procom. Org/view. Answers. PH? Questioned=()00685) Regardless how you look at it the DNA index system when used properly can solve a rime and is very useful for law enforcement. With the ongoing growth of technology, they will find more fast and efficient ways to solve crimes and catch criminals. Biometrics According to the NJ, Biometrics is the science of using one or more physical characteristics or behavioral traits to identify individuals. Biometrics helps law enforcement agencies track individuals down. One known biometric technology is fingerprinting. This method provides accurate information of detecting criminals. Fingerprinting also helps secure borders and prevent identity theft. Cybercafà © Spy;are So many people use the internet and use that as a way of communication, business, etc. This has had a dramatic rise in crimes through this technology. Public and private entities have developed these techniques and others to address cybercafà © which include fraud, child exploitation, viruses, and many more crimes. There are numerous agencies in the U. S including the federal government level the US department of Justice, homeland security, local and state Law Enforcement that have the responsibility to investigate and prosecute cybercafà ©s. Crime fighting techniques are always evolving and improving; the growth helps educe the amount of crime committed each year. There are new crime-fighting methodologies developed and improved on every day; biometrics, cybercafà © spare, and DNA collection programs. Criminology has grown greatly and has been expanded on. However policies from the past are still used today because they still apply to society and the relation to crime. However, there have been many improvements in the policies in the past. Although these methods help reduce crime and possibly detect criminal activity, some theories and crime-fighting methodologies violate civil liberty. How to cite Criminology, Papers

Superhero free essay sample

Most boys grow up with dreams of being a superhero– a paragon of wonder and virtue, with extraordinary powers used to save the world. I suppose I was not much different; but instead of a cape, I wanted scrubs, and instead of super-strength or the ability to fly, I wanted the power of scientific and medical knowledge. As a child, nothing seemed as exhilarating as slicing and stitching, nor as awe-inspiring as understanding the human body, its structure and function. I could only hope to one day look inside of a head, to examine the brain, and to understand how it works, allowing us to think, move, speak, see, feel, and live. Then I would combine intellect with innovation, facts and theories with the hands-on art of a scalpel, and I would learn to heal others. Yes, I wanted to be a superhero– I wanted to be a surgeon. However, like the best of heroes, I, too, would have an alter ego. We will write a custom essay sample on Superhero or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I love the logic and objectivity of mathematics and science, puzzles that when worked through explain the natural universe, but there is also much more that sustains me intellectually. I have a strong passion for foreign language, a way to open doors to distant worlds, a tool that I use to interact and expand my connection to other cultures. I am a writer, inspired by what surrounds me, eager to communicate my perspective to others and let my imagination grow. I am somebody whose interest is captivated by social sciences and learning about the society in which I live, as I find a sense of identity while becoming a more informed and engaged member of the community. In addition, I find Talmud to be an enriching and stimulating exercise, and I take great pride in surmounting the challenge of analyzing complex texts and philosophies. So how do I explore all that fascinates me? The answer seems clear. Cornell University’s College of Arts and Sciences is an institution that will afford me the privilege of being in an academic environment in which I will grow and thrive as I surround myself with brilliant minds and indulge each nuance of my varied interests with a strong liberal arts education. Moreover, the Biology and Society major is an unrivaled match for me, an individual drawn to interdisciplinary subjects, who is hooked on a career in the operating room, yet wishes to go even further. I hope to never lose sight of my creativity and my appetite for profound conversation due to years of solely staring through microscopes and making incisions; rather, as I dive into the study of living things, I want to translate my education into a practical context for the modern world in which life truly exists. Thus, my education will be more than a collection of facts. It will be applicable in multifaceted ways, it will guide my through professional and personal endeavors, and it will, absolutely, transform my childhood dream of being a superhero, into my reality.

Abortion Essays (522 words) - Abortion, Human Reproduction

Abortion ABORTION The coexistence of opposite and conflicting feelings about abortion is centuries old. Most arguments against granting women the right to abortion are based on religious and moral prohibitions, defending the sanctity of human life. Opponents of abortion rely on the premise that the fetus is a human being, a person from the moment of conception. Anti-abortionist proclaim that they are pro-life, however they spend so much time establishing that the fetus is a person and therefore has a right to live that they forget about mothers rights or simply ignore her existence. The word murder is often used by pro-lifers to describe abortion. Murder means deliberate and unjustified killing of another person containing intent. How can anybody see an evil intent in a womans decision to interrupt pregnancy if it is a result of rape or incest? A woman cannot bear the thought of having a child that would be a constant reminder of what had happened on such a day and such number of years ago. She does not want to kill a baby; she wants to interrupt the growth of an embryo so that it will not become a baby. She interrupts potential life, but potential life is just that, potential. It is interesting to note that these same people, who place so much emphasis on protecting the fetus, seem to care so little about what happens to children after they are born. My personal belief is that each woman should have a right to decide whether she wants to terminate an unwanted pregnancy. For reasons of womens right to self-determination, protection of their health, adequate care of children which are born and in order to prevent child abuse and mental disease, easy access to abortion is a must. I recently heard on TV that most abortions occur because contraception failed, because of a rape or because of a serious medical condition of the mother, which could lead to her death. In these situations abortion is often the only way that prevents the birth of an unwanted child or saves a mothers life. Another reason why I believe that availability of choice is vital for women is that if a woman decides to have an abortion, she will do anything to end her pregnancy. This is the reality. The reasons why women have abortions vary. It may be a case of rape, physical or psychological condition. A choice must needs to be available to prevent the birth of unwanted children, to avoid damage to the child as well as to safeguard the emotional and physical health of women. Preservation of life seems to be rather a slogan then a genuine goal of the anti-abortion forces; what they really want is control. Control over our behavior and power over women. Abortion is a tough choice and the decision should be a personal one, without interference of government or special interest groups. God gave us freedom of choice and if He, as a God, gives all of us this freedom, what right do we have to take it away from women! Human Sexuality

Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings Essay Example

Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings Essay Example Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings Paper Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings Paper Chronic illness to any of the member of the family actually affects the whole family. And when a child diagnosed is diagnosed with a chronic illness, it has its effect not only on the suffering child but the entire family as a whole which includes his/her siblings. Though the children in most of the cases have been found to adapt their siblings’ chronic illness but the complete picture indicates that they have to experience stress and psychological problems (Association for Children with Disability, 2003). They have to suffer changes in the form of various aspects of life beginning with relationship with their parents in form of both quantity and quality, especially the mother who is so much preoccupied with ill child that there occurs an unintentional negligence in the amount of support to be provided to the other children (Cloues, 2006). The family being a system tends to maintain a sense of stability while resisting forces or changes that could cause a disruption to this stability. Chronic illness to a member especially child is a major disruption of family with stability being the first victim with later effects on other children (Cloues, 2006). In the United States, number of children suffering from chronic illness ranges between 4 and 7 million and about one-half to one million of them are actually patients of severe chronic childhood disability (Newacheck Halfon, 1998; Patterson, 1988). The extremely high variation of data makes way for something between 5% and 40% of children suffer from a chronic illness (Newacheck Halfon, 1998; Perrin MacLean, 1988). The variation itself is a proof of underestimation and the actual number might be much higher if we go along with the definition by P. D. Williams (1997), according to which â€Å"chronic illness is an ailment with a duration of 6 months or longer showing little change or slow progression† (p. 132). With the presence of a child with some chronic illness, the circumstance under which the family grows is quite unfamiliar. In the solution phase while coping with the problem, a process of change begun within the family with varying emotional responses effecting considerable sibling adjustment to manage the influx of strong and conflicting emotions (Association for Children with Disability, 2003). Background A siblings response to growing up in a family that has a child with a disability needs to be understood in their context of their stage of development. Children respond to the events of day-to-day life based on their stage of physical, mental and emotional development. Children learn from their environment and through their relationship with their parents and siblings. The sibling relationship, which is life long, has an important influence on the development of a persons identity. In later life, it can be a source of mutual support, depending on the quality of the early relationship. C. Purpose D. Research Question II. Review of the Literature III. Methodology Quantitative Reviews of the Literature A recent methodological advance to resolve discrepant findings across studies is meta-analysis. This quantitative review strategy is employed to assess factors both substantive and methodological that produce inconsistencies across studies (Schmidt, 1992). Howe (1993) employed a vote-count meta analysis strategy to review 21 studies with control groups or normative reference groups that examined siblings of children with chronic illness. A vote count meta-analysis is a simple tabulation of studies by their outcomes. Howe concluded that siblings of children with a chronic illness were at higher risk than other children for psychological problems, that neurological conditions produced more negative effects than nonneurological conditions, and that negative effects were most often manifested as internalizing behaviors. Summers, White, and Summers (1994) conducted a vote-count meta-analysis of 13 studies of siblings of children with a chronic illness or an intellectual disability. These 13 studies were assessed for their methodological quality and research methodology, and study results were categorized as positive, negative, or nonsignificant. These researchers concluded that being the sibling of a child with a disability had both negative and positive consequences, that parent surveys and direct observation generated more negative findings than child self-reports, and that higher quality studies found fewer differences between siblings and comparison samples. Like Howe’s (1993) review of the literature, the Summers et al. meta-analysis was constrained by the limitations to the vote-count review strategy: no estimation of effect size magnitude, no consideration of sample size, and no mechanism for evaluating systematically the impact of moderator variables. A recent meta-analysis of 25 studies and 79 effect sizes from the literature on the siblings of individuals with intellectual disabilities (Rossiter Sharpe, 2001) revealed a small negative effect for having a sibling with an intellectual disability that could not be attributed to a publication bias or some other artifact. This negative effect was most pronounced for measures of psychological functioning, especially depression, and adult reports versus child self reports. This meta-analysis pertains to the siblings of children with a chronic illness. Based on the findings from traditional literature reviews and the vote count meta-analyses, a negative effect was anticipated for having a sibling with a chronic illness. A number of hypotheses based on methodological and substantive issues were then derived. Methodological Issues. The first methodological hypothesis was that studies published more recently would show fewer negative and more positive outcomes than earlier studies. Lamorey (1999) observed more recent studies to show fewer negative effects and more variation in outcomes. A second methodological hypothesis was that more negative effects would be found for parental reports than sibling self reports (Summers et al. , 1994). The third methodological hypothesis was that studies employing normative data for comparison to the sibling samples would produce negative effects of greater magnitude than found for studies that employed matched control groups (Lavigne Faier-Routman, 1992). Substantive Issues. A number of hypotheses were also made that related to substantive variables. First, a larger negative effect was expected for internalizing over externalizing behaviors. Howe (1993) found four of eleven studies of siblings of children with chronic illness showed a negative effect for internalizing behavior compared to only one of eight studies for externalizing behaviors. Second, sibling outcomes were anticipated to vary by the chronic disease and its features. One view is many chronic conditions of childhood produce similar psychological and behavioral effects (Vessey Mebane, 2000). Childhood chronic illnesses, however, vary on dimensions such as etiology, age of onset, impact on functioning, and prognosis (see Lobato, Faust, Spirito, 1988). More severe chronic illnesses place greater restrictions on the child’s activities (Newacheck Taylor, 1992), and perhaps greater demands on parents, siblings, the family system, and the community (Patterson, 1988). Third, the interaction of sibling gender and birth order was considered (Howe, 1993; Williams, 1997). Method Fifty published studies from 1976 to 2000, representing over twenty-five hundred siblings of children with chronic illness, were identified from computer searches of databases such as PsycLit and MEDLINE, using key words such as â€Å"siblings† and â€Å"illness,† from previous reviews of the literature and from the reference sections of located studies. Excluded from the meta-analysis were case studies, nonempirical or qualitative studies, or studies without an appropriate comparison group or normative data. Studies were also excluded that evaluated the reactions of healthy siblings to the illness or death of a brother or sister or pertained to the adult siblings of individuals with a chronic illness. Studies that employed no comparison group but that provided normative data were included in this meta-analysis. Unpublished studies were not sought for inclusion in this meta-analysis. First, it is almost impossible to collect all published studies in all languages, much less all unpublished studies. Second, the peer review process for published studies serves as an albeit imperfect form of quality control. Third, there is evidence that publication bias is less serious than once feared (Sharpe, 1997). Publication bias, the socalled â€Å"file-drawer† problem, is the belief that the failure to include unpublished studies in the metaanalysis might inflate the magnitude of effect sizes, given that published studies may overrepresent statistically significant findings. To ascertain the likelihood of such a publication bias, statistical and graphical analyses of effect sizes were conducted. Studies by the same author(s) that appeared to examine the same participants (e. g. , Breslau Prabucki, 1987; Breslau, Weitzman, Messenger, 1981) were treated as a single study for the purposes of this meta-analysis. Three of the primary studies (Faux, 1991; Stawski, Averbach, Barasch, Lerner, Zimin, 1997; Wood et al. , 1988) provided separate data for the siblings of children with distinctly different chronic illnesses. These sub samples were treated as separate studies. In total, 51 study-level effect size statistics were evaluated. Each study was coded for method of data collection (child self-report, parent report, or direct observation), chronic illness, age of siblings, gender of siblings, number of sibling and comparison participants, and dependent measure category: psychological functioning (e. g. , Internalizing subscales of the Child Behavior Checklist), self concept (e. g. , Piers-Harris Self-Concept scale), caretaking, sibling relationship, peer activities (e. g. , Social Competence subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist), cognitive functioning (e. g. , intelligence test scores), and cognitive development (e. g. , school performance). Parent and teacher reports were combined because only five studies asked teachers to complete a dependent measure. Four of the five comparisons based on teacher reports were not statistically significant. All codings were completed by the first author and checked independently by the second author. Disagreements were resolved by discussion. Effect Size Calculations. An effect size statistic d (Hedges Olkin, 1985) was calculated for each relevant outcome by subtracting the mean score for comparison participants from the mean score for siblings with a chronic illness and by dividing that sum by a pooled standard deviation. Normative data provided by the primary authors in the published studies were substituted for data from comparison participants when the latter were not provided. If means and standard deviations were not reported, effect sizes were calculated from summary statistics (e. g. , t statistics, p values) by employing the metaanalysis software package D-Stat (Johnson, 1989). Effect sizes were weighted by the reciprocal of their variance as recommended by Hedges and Olkin (1985). When no data were reported in a primary study but the difference between the sibling and comparison groups was said to be nonsignificant, an effect size of zero was recorded. For all analyses, negative effect sizes reflect less positive functioning for siblings of children with a chronic illness relative to comparison children or normative data. Effect sizes from the same study, chronic illness, dependent measure category, and method of data collection were combined and averaged. The resulting set of 103 outcome-level effect sizes was evaluated for their statistical significance (95% confidence interval around zero) and their homogeneity (Hedges Olkin, 1985). The effect sizes from the 51 studies were also examined where appropriate to do so. The overall test for homogeneity (QT) assesses whether a set of effect sizes is internally consistent. For most meta-analyses, homogeneity of the set of effect sizes is not achieved without some combination of outlier analysis and partitioning of effect sizes into smaller clusters on the basis of moderator variables. The identification and removal of outliers are appropriate if homogeneity can be achieved by deleting no more than 20% of the effect sizes (Hedges Olkin, 1985). Regardless of the outcome of the overall test of homogeneity, however, tests of moderator variables are justified when based on theoretical considerations (see Hall Rosenthal, 1991). After the overall test for homogeneity, effect size clusters were created on the basis of moderator variables (e. g. , method of data collection). The homogeneity of effect sizes within clusters (QW) and differences between mean effect sizes across clusters (QB) were calculated. A significant QB value implies differences in the mean effect sizes associated with the effect size clusters. Interpretation of such an outcome is less clear if there are significant differences in effect sizes within one or more clusters (the QW statistic for each cluster). When moderator variables were continuous (e. g. , sample size), correlations between effect sizes and the moderator variables were calculated. Results The results are divided into three sections. The first section reports on tests of effect sizes: tests of the magnitude of mean effect sizes, tests for publication bias, and tests of homogeneity of effect sizes. The second section examines the role of methodological moderator variables, specifically, year of publication, method of data collection, and comparison group versus normative data. The third section considers substantive moderator variables, specifically, categories of dependent measures, differences by chronic illness, and effects of gender, birth order, and age of sibling.

Forming an S Corporation in Mississippi Research Paper

Forming an S Corporation in Mississippi - Research Paper Example The S corporations are liable for tax on individual, integrated gains and passive returns (Goldstein & Davidson, 1992). Necessary documentation, filling fees, and filing For an entity to qualify for S corporation status, it must be a domestic corporation with shareholders, defined trust, and estates and should not constitute partnerships, corporations or nonresident foreign shareholders. Furthermore, it should not have more than 100 members, have one kind of stock, and not be an ineligible business entity (McQuown, 2004). In order to become an S corporation, the corporation must submit Form 2553 Election by a Small Business Corporation (PDF format) signed by the owners. The Mississippi S Corporations are for those who focus on the limited liability and the bureaucratic composition of corporations but containing a pass-through taxation of the business earnings (McQuown, 2004). The Mississippi S Corporation is simply a set business that becomes an S Corporation when its shareholders el ect the outstanding tax status with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) by filing an Internal Revenue Service’s Form 2553filed with the Internal Revenue Service (McQuown, 2004). This form is for electing tax categories. This is a mandatory requirement outlined in the state laws of Mississippi and the federal laws. The regulation as a sole entity that is different from its owners recognizes a Mississippi S Corporation. The S corporation owners enjoy partial liability for the arrears, obligations and liabilities accrued by the entity as well as a liability from possible lawful action. Protection of stakeholder individual assets is a key principle that Mississippi business owners want to incorporate. Usually, owners cannot lose more than the level they brought in the corporation. However, if the corporation is liquidated, the owners will not be liable for debts incurred. In case someone sues the concern and is, liable the courts can use the corporation’s asset to fulfill t he judgment. However, if those assets do not satisfy the judgment, the courts will not be able to take owners’ possessions (McQuown, 2004). There are exceptions to owners’ limited liability to keep in mind. Usually, an exception to an owner’s limited liability occurs when the corporation has irresponsibly laid people or been used to extend fraud (Goldstein & Davidson, 1992). A Mississippi S Corporation does not pay income taxes. Although, an S Corporation that has more than one alien stakeholder files duty returns, the owners must embrace their share of the corporation’s profits or losses on their personal tax returns, as is done in single proprietorship, partnership and by a Limited Liability Company (Goldstein & Davidson, 1992). The tax law gives employees of the corporation the opportunity to enjoy exceptional fringe benefits on a tax-free basis. They can get provided group term life insurance up to $50,000, health insurance coverage, dependent care as sistance up to $5,000, education up to $5,250, adoption aid and more (Goldstein, S. & Davidson, 1992). They can are also covered with medical reimbursement plans. In order to register a business as an S corporation the state of Mississippi requires an Articles of Incorporation or Certificate of Incorporation (Goldstein, S. & Davidson, 1992). Before forming an S corporation in Mississippi, the individuals must file legal documents with Mississippi state authorities so as be allowed to create a Mississippi

SS402B Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

SS402B - Essay Example tion procedures to be followed, procedures of assessment reporting, requirement documenting, confidentiality, procedures of recording, policies and procedures for continuous improvement, assessment cost, links with industrial system relations, link with quality management system, procedures of assessment appeal, policies in support of grievances of candidates, and arrangement s of partnership. In order to test and tag the electrical equipment to be used for assessment, there are a number of steps that shall be followed to ensure that this is done appropriately. First, the assessor will identify the equipment that needs to be tested then have them recorded in the register of electrical testing. The technical assistant needs to have calibrated the equipment within at least twelve months. Secondly the assessor would take a risk assessment of the equipment to find out the relevant testing frequency. The time frames for the equipment would also be set. A person who is competent would be engaged in the equipment testing. Thirdly, the tags and grant for electrical testing should be provided to the sites so as to help in the portable electrical equipment testing. The number of host sites would be identified, and resourced by testing tags and testing appliances. The training would then be organized for the electrical testers that are nominated. Fourthly, the individual sites would engage the trained staff members to take part in the testing. This trained staff member contacts the host sites so as to make an arrangement of access to the tags and testing equipments. From the hazard assessment and evaluation of risks in the work place of the assessment candidates, there were different types of breaches in the health and safety of the site. The common breaches found were that key precautions of the site were missing. The edge protection for the prevention of falls from a given height was missing managers of the site were poorly trained, the workers on the site had no

Effects Of Organic Waste Pollution On The Natural Environment Essay

Effects Of Organic Waste Pollution On The Natural Environment - Essay Example Water cycle that consist of material flow on earth’s surface to water masses are some of the causes of water pollution as the flows collect materials into water bodies and are vulnerable to intentional pollution through domestic and industrial waste disposal. This paper discusses environmental effects of organic waste pollution and reviews an article that uses toxicology to investigate the impacts of water pollution on the natural environment. Effects of organic waste pollution on the natural environment Organic discharge into water bodies has varying effects on the environment. One of the effects of organic pollution is the disintegration of organic matter to changed odour and taste of water. Effects of continuous degradation are accumulation of compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans and this leads to gradual increase in changed odour and taste of water that may not be suitable for sensitive flora and fauna. Organic pollutants also destabilize oxygen concentration in water masses. Many factors lead to this shift from equilibrium of water concentration. Processes of organic components of water such as photosynthesis and respiration uses oxygen and may change oxygen concentration in water. Photosynthesis may increase concentration beyond its equilibrium while respiration may reduce the level of concentration. Anaerobic respiration and oxidation of organic pollutants are other factors that can reduce oxygen concentration in water. ... Insufficient oxygen in water may also cause death of aquatic animals. Such deaths further leads to accumulation of organic compounds in water and worsen the problem with oxygen concentration. Death of plants and animals in the water bodies also generate aesthetic effect besides increasing water turbidity (Goel 2006, p 116- 120). Organic pollution also affects levels of production of aquatic plants and animals. As the pollutants begin to invade water bodies, aquatic plants and animals benefits from nutrients that the organic pollutants may contain and this leads to high rates of photosynthesis and respiration among other processes. Increased concentration of organic pollutants however have adverse effects on aquatic lives as respiration rates increase and this leads to aesthetic effect and instability in oxygen concentration. Accumulation of organic pollutants also increases concentration of chemical compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and ammonia, chemicals that have adverse effects on some plant and animal species such as phytoplankton. High levels of organic pollution are also a threat to biodiversity. At normal water conditions, without organic pollutants, all aquatic plants, and animals are able to survive and their populations are constant. High levels of pollution however threaten the lives and less tolerant plants and animals die. Some plants and animals may however be tolerant and survive the harsh conditions due to the pollution. Consequently, aquatic life will consist of the tolerant species that may only be few. Loss of biodiversity from the pollution can also be permanent, unless artificial measures such as reintroduction of the extinct species upon resumption of normal condition in the polluted aquatic environment. Organic

The Dividend Policy at Linear Technology

The Dividend Policy at Linear Technology Linear Technoloy(LT) is a company founded in 1981 by Robert Swanson. Its area of actvity is development, production and marketing for semiconductors used in various electronic applications used by the communication industry to the automotive industry. It mainly focuses on the analog segment within the integrated circuits industry and, by market capitalization, it is the seventh-largest company listed on the Philadelphia Stock Exchange Semiconductor Index (SOX). Regarding its customer portfolio, the communication industry accounted for 33% of Linears sales, computers 27%, automotive 6% and the rest of 34% was divided by the rest of the industries. Linear Technologys Payout Policy Linears payout policy is comprised out of two elements: dividend payout and stock repurchase. In general companies decide to payout dividends after transitioning from a high growth stage to mature and stable stage. (Grullon Michaely, 2004). Linear started paying dividends in 1992. This decision was based on good expectations regarding the analog circuits market and the fact that Linear had a top position in the industry. Also the CFO of the company points out that, since the IPO, the company had positive cash flows. Thus paying out dividends would signal a strong position in a risky market and the transition to a more mature state of the company. As observed by some investors the technological companies had been just reaching that stage when paying out dividends was possible. The initial price for a share was set at US$0.05. This amounted for 15% of the total earnings of the company in the fiscal year of 1994. The relative low level was based on two principles. The first principle w as that dividend payout demands a certain respect from investors so in order to send the right signal into the market and attract new investors, the company had to pay dividends. This in turn would mean a thoughtful payout ratio that the company could sustain over time thus leading to the second principle. This states that a low level for dividends would better suit the company in the event of less than expected earnings. In this case the company would not have to cut down or even stop paying dividends. Thus a bad signal to the investors is avoided. Since 1992, the payout ratio has been growing steadily, getting close to 25% in 2003. Considering that 2002 meant a decline in sales and earnings, the company board and its management is debating on whether to increase the ratio or to keep it into accordance with company earnings. The CFO of Linear is confident that the business prospects and the cost structure can support an increase and he expects that this increase will send a good si gnal to investors. From the repurchase point of view, as stated by Paul Coghlan, CFO of Linear, one primary reason that we buy back the stock is to offset the exercise of employee stock options. Another reason was also the market conditions. The low interest rates offered by Linears high-grade security investments encouraged the company to use the cash-at-hand to buy back shares thus making a better use of the cash balance. A third reason was that, despite a large cash balance the company did not have any acquisition plans. The company repurchased shares sporadically between 1993 and 2001, and quarterly since then but again without any obvious pattern. Considering both elements, the companys mixed payout policy attends to all shareholder requirements by increasing the level of dividends quarterly and by managing in a conservative way a large cash balance. What are Linears financing needs? LTs income statement and revenue growth seems to be relatively stable over the past 11 years (1992-2002) with the exception of the boom during the peak(2000-2001) of the IT bubble and the bust after the burst of this bubble(2002). However even in economic downfall LT still managed to obtain a positive net income and net cash flow. This is due to LTs limited costs set up and relatively low financing needs. It is stated that in the semiconductor industry, research development investments, capital investment in new fabrication facilities, and retaining top engineers are of crucial importance. LT focuses on analog semiconductors and as such has stable and modest research and development costs. The analog fabrication facilities investments are more durable and account to a relative investment of approximately 20million per year. Finally LT uses a bonus structure for its executive compensation, keeping salary expenses lower when sales revenues decline. Additionally LT expresses little des ire in excessive investments, cash is handled very conservative with investment strategy in predominantly short-term debt securities, however LT is looking at potential business opportunities in the Asian markets, , if LT was to proceed with this plan this would increase its financing needs substantially. All in all resulting in a relatively low financing need for LT with regards to internal factors. With regards to external factors LT could endure financing needs resulting from market risks and the unclear effect of the Iraq war on the American economy, this results in the need for LT to hold a higher cash reserve. We will address this issue more in depth in the subsequent part. Should Linear return cash to its shareholders? Some shareholders have recently expressed the desire for LT to return its cash, however this desire is not necessarily shared by all shareholders. Theoretically returning Cash to the shareholders can reduce agency conflicts because it reduces cash in hands of the firm which can be invested in bad projects. It also reduces the costs of underinvestment if LT decides not to invest this cash it holds. The agency conflict seems relatively small considering LTs investment behavior and thus would be of relatively little importance when considering if LT should return cash to its shareholders. However asymmetric information exists and shareholders are unaware whether or not LT will remand its current investment policy. Additionally returning cash to the shareholders can give positive signals to the market about the future prospects of the firm. This could be of great potential importance considering the industry in which LT operates and the recent economic downturn this industry experienced. Conversely, if LT was to hold on to the cash this would preserve their liquidity levels which would both allow the firm to invest in positive NPV projects without entering the capital market, and additionally create a cushion against potential economic or financial distress. Regarding the financial cushion aspect of holding cash, if LT returns cash to its shareholders it should not return the full 1,5billion, but considering the current economic situation should preserve at least $200mto cover unexpected expenses. In the past LT has not shown great interest in investing other than in short-term securities, however, LT has been looking for business opportunities in the Asian market, holding cash in the firm increases the firms potential to respond to such an opportunity when it comes along. Bearing in mind LTs sales earnings, cash flows, and investment practices, it becomes evident that current dividend payments are not at the level they could potentially be. As observed by Janus Ca pital, the largest single holder of LT stock, current dividend payments are merely a token relative to the level of cash LT holds, therefore it would be possible for LT to increase its current dividend level. The problem with dividend payments its inflexibility, once LT decides to increase its dividend payments it will be hard for them to return this to its current level at a later stage. Currently LTs dividend payments is at a competitive level with respect to its peers on the Philadelphia Stock Exchange Semiconductor Index (SOX) and other technology companies. As stated in the case even a penny increase in dividend level will move the payout ratio to a level above most other technology levels. This brings us to the question why a company would decide to payout dividends. Commonly corporations at a mature stage without many growth opportunities and a stable positive cash flow. As discussed earlier LT can be identified as a relatively stable and mature company with stable costs and relatively stable growth. However as a technology company, LT is sensitive to the market, which has become evident in its 2000-2003 results. During the IT bubble LT performed exceptionally well, but after the burst sales dropped with 47% relative to the year prior. However, looking at the figures of 2003 we can see that LTs sales recover quite quickly, ending 2003 with approximately $602m in sales, which is in line with 5 year sale average ($636m). It could therefore both be argued that growth is not stable for LT and thus dividend payments are relatively risky for LT with regards to market reaction when dividend payments are reduced. However, growth has always (with the exception of 2002) been positive and LT could thus be deemed relatively safe. (Graham et al, 2005) Usually repurchases are used when the firm holds an excess in cash e.g. to reduce agency conflicts and underinvestment. Dividend increases relate more to an excess in free cash flow. In the case of LT, the firm holds a n excess in cash but due to economic situation over the past two years does not have a relative high free cash flow. In this respect LT is looking to reduce excess cash, thus cash returns via repurchase would be more in line with firm performance. When considering how to return cash to the shareholder tax matters but in a second-order manner (Brav et al (2005)). This is due to the fact that value return to shareholders is financed after tax payments and thus the manner of returning value to shareholders with respect to taxes affects predominantly shareholders. Shareholders, under current tax system, pay relatively more tax on dividend than on repurchases. However, the tax argument is only applicable for those shareholders who are indifferent towards holding or selling their share, long term shareholders would prefer dividend payments regardless of tax difference. If new tax proposal would pass there would be no tax difference with capital gain for shareholders thus with regard to ta xes they would most likely prefer dividend payments. However repurchases reduce the number of outstanding shares and thus increase EPS and share prices. Even though share prices will increase with dividend increases also, when dividend payments are increased and the firm at a later stage, cannot pay these dividends or reduces them this results in a decrease of share price, where a non-continuum of repurchasing practices has no effect on later share prices. Additionally if the firm does not want to reduce or cancel dividend payments for this reason they might decide to split the stock, increasing the number of outstanding shares and thus decreasing the EPS. Therefore both shareholders and firms should only prefer an increase in dividend payments over repurchases when cash flows and growth rates are stable for the firm with little or no expected future change, even when tax rates are set to be equal. With regard to the option compensation for executives, the repurchases would induce m ore value than would dividend increase, which should be considered in an industry where there is talent competition. Concluding, LT should return some of its cash to its shareholder, however, not all cash should be returned, and preferably not through an increase of common dividend payouts. This will be further discussed in section 5 of this report. What are the tax consequences of keeping cash inside the firm? In the event that LT would decide to keep the cash within the company instead of paying out to its shareholders LT will endure certain costs with respect to taxes. The benefit of keeping the cash in the company means that LT will have the liquidity needed to enter in NPV projects when opportunities arise without needing to access the capital market for costly funding. However, with respect to taxes, not entering the capital market for funding can be deemed inefficient due to the tax deductibility of debt and interest payments on levering. At a 30% corporate tax rate the marginal value of a dollar is thus lower for a firm not using debt financing (Martà ­nez-Sola et al (2009)). This can be identified as an opportunity costs of keeping cash within the company instead of returning this to its shareholders. Being identified as a cost of returning cash to the shareholder and a benefit of keeping the cash in the company, liquidity allows LT to invest and thus potentially earn interest on the cash. LT maintains a conservative investment strategy and predominantly invests in short-term debt securities. This, as identified in the case, in recent years resulted in a low interest return to LT, encouraging LT to return more cash to its shareholders. However, considering that only capital gains are taxed, this at any positive interest rate assumed the gain achieved by interest payment will be higher than the reduction in tax rates. Taxes can only be effectively reduced by increasing the payments to employees or research development with the use of sales revenue (thus reducing free cash flow), not existing cash, or by the use of debt financing. If Linear were to pay out its entire cash balance as a special dividend, what would be the effect on value? One significant target of the dividend distribution is to show investors that Linear has a good position on the market, and to buy shares from Linear Technology is not comparable with the risk which is usually associated with the purchase of shares from technology companies. With a dividend Linear Technology wants to reach investors that have income goals besides of growth goals. In case of a dividend distribution demand for shares will rise. If investors know that a dividend from a certain amount will be paid, the share price increases by the dividend that will be paid. In case of a share price of $30,87 and a dividend of $5,01 the new share price will rise to $35,88. As the dividend will be paid at a certain point of time investors are ready to pay the amount of the dividend additionally to the share price of $30,87, as the dividend will be paid out. Depending on the time until the dividend is paid not the whole amount of dividend is added to the share price. If there is still a certain period of time until the dividend will be paid, only the net present value of the dividend, which is announced will be added to the share price. It also can be said that the closer the payment of the dividend gets, the more the amount of the total dividend payment is added to the normal share price. That also means that consequently the market value of equity also will rise. At the day ex-dividend the share price will drop below the level of the pre-announcement day, as the dividend as driver of the rising demand had been paid. The additional value of $5,01 that were relied to the dividend is not part of the share value any more. The dividend, as part of the equity, is paid to the shareholder. The EBT will go down now as interest income decreases. Because of the decreasing interest income also taxes are declining. As the reduction on interest income is higher this does not play such a decisive role. Special Dividend Repurchase Nr of outstanding shares 312,4 312,4 Share value 30,87 30,87 Market Value 9643,788 9643,788 Special Dividend Paid 5,01 New Shareprice 1 35,88 Nr of Shares repurchased 50,70 New outstanding shares 261,70 Loss of interest income 46,96 EBT 273,44 Earnings 189,49 Earnings Per share $ 0,72 Figure Effects of repurchase or special dividend What if Linear repurchases shares instead?. The repurchase of shares is another option besides of a dividend distribution. Advantages of repurchasing shares is the reduction of systematic risk and cost of capital. Information and rumours about repurchase of shares will increase the demand before the repurchase date and therefore makes the repurchase more expensive. Usually a premium of one until ten per cent has to be calculated. To calculate the number of new shares that can be purchased the cash balance has to be divided by the new share price. To calculate the new market value the new share price with the total number of shares has to be multiplied. Therefore also the earnings per share would increase. On the other hand it should be taken in mind that normally the increase in share price is not from a long-term perspective. Primarily firms in low concentrated industries can benefit from an increase of the share price from a long-term perspective and can outperform the market. In more concentrated industries there will be no statistically significant change. In general the repurchase of shares has a negative effect on the share prices of competitors. Therefore often competitors mimic the behaviour and also do a repurchase of shares. (Massa, Rehman, Vermaelen, 2007) In the study of Grullon and Michaely it is shown that within a 6-year period the repurchasing firm benefits from an essential reduction in systematic risk in comparison to non-repurchasing firms. A negative effect of repurchasing are decreasing investment opportunities. This does not play a decisive role in this case, as in both options there would be a reduction of cash flow. Also in case of stock options for employees the repurchase of shares is an efficient possibility to control the market. To repurchase shares at the point of time when employees sell their rights of stock options makes it neutral from a trading perspective. As Mr. Coghlan stated that Linear Technology wants to offset the exercise of employees stock options with the repurchase of stocks. From the company and management side flexibility is the main advantage for repurchasing in comparison to dividend distribution (Brav, Graham, Harvey, Michaely, 2005). The flexibility can be used to increase repurchases when stock prices are low. Also the higher tax burden in case of dividends can be taken as an argument for repurchasing instead of paying dividends, although in the study it is shown that taxes do not play a primary role and that repurchasing does not change the investors clientele. This point which is also taken as an argument for paying out a dividend by Linear Technology can therefore be de-emphasised. Why do firms pay dividends? When a firm generates free cash flows it has to decide what to do with them. It can reinvest in positive NPV projects, if they are present, and increase the value of the firm. This practice is very common for young firms that pursue rapid growth and sometimes invest 100 per cent of their cash in this way. More mature firms, that operate in more mature market, however, do not always have these opportunities and hold more cash than there are potential positive NPV-projects to exploit. Such a firm with excess cash can either retain it in reserves or pay it out to shareholders. Two payout choices are: repurchases and dividends. When firms pay-out they have several reasons for it. Although not entirely proven, dividends are a possible tool to signal good news to the market and to prevent managers from exploiting free cash flows for their own benefits. The most important reason why dividends are paid, however, is the firms dividend history. Furthermore some firms issue dividends to get acc ess to a new set of investors. Each of these reasons will be discussed next. With asymmetric information in the market, meaning that mangers hold better information regarding future prospects of the firm than investors, payout decisions may signal information. The common practice for dividend paying firms is to smooth dividends and only cut them under extreme cases, which are addressed later, will cause the market to also believe the company is not able to rebound its earnings in the near term. It also implies that once the company increases dividends it signals that the company is able to afford the higher dividend with increased earnings (Berk DeMarzo, 2007). Although most managers no longer see payout policy as a tool to separate its company from competitors, it could be a reason for some to initiate dividends (Brav, Graham, Campbell, Harvey, and Michely, 2005). Especially when dividends are already part of historical business practice in these firms, and as management is very reluctant to cut dividends they will keep them in place. Another reason for man agers to pay out dividends is its ability to prevent agency conflicts as the otherwise free cash flow is no longer in the hands of management. Most managers, however, do not view payout policy as a means to self-imposed discipline. Access to new set of investors is also a reason why management will issue dividends (CASE). As different clienteles hold different preferences in income and in taxes to be paid, some have a stronger preference for dividends than others (Berk DeMarzo, 2007). To attract for instance mutual funds and European investors companies have more success when they issue dividends. Dividends are also more likely to attract retail investors as they prefer dividends over repurchases (Brav, Graham, Campbell, Harvey, and Michely, 2005). Why has the rate of dividend initiations changed over time? There has been a general trend away from dividends from the late 1970s through the rest of the twentieth century. In 1978, over 66 percent of the AMEX, NYSE, and NASDAQ firms paid a regular dividend. By 1999, only 21 percent were dividend payers. Below several reasons are listed for this trend, including: changing firm characteristics, more stock option compensation, US tax law, and dividends inflexibility. Besides, in the late 1950s the starting point for most payout decisions was the payout ratio (Lintner, 1956), while recently this is no longer a common practice for most firms. Firms that were going public in the 1980s and 1990s were early in their lifecycle, with considerable more growth opportunities than current profits (CASE). There tend to be fewer firms in this lifecycle that issue dividends (Graham et al, 2004). In a large part, technology firms, as Linear Technology, were driving this trend. Many of these firms were just about to reach the stage at which they were able to pay dividends, the stage where they began to earn regular and more predictable cash flows (CASE). But even large technology firms, that held stable cash flows, tended to restrain from dividends. One reason for this was the heavy use of stock option compensation. With the majority of their pay in options, managers are not likely to pay dividends as it does not benefit them that much. Furthermore when dividends are issued instead of repurchases, the outstanding amount of stock is increased once options are exercised, resulting in a decrease in the earnings per share (CASE). Although US tax law changed in 2003, making it more attractive to issue dividends, they still are at a tax disadvantage compared to capital gains that can be deferred. Until 2003 issuing dividends was thus even at an even bigger disadvantage to other forms of pay-out (Brav, Graham, Campbell, Harvey, and Michely, 2005). This, however, does not explain the downward trend in dividends, but it does explain why dividend s have never risen in popularity amongst managers. Unlike repurchases, managers are very reluctant to cut dividends and tend to smooth dividends. Among others, they are in most cases even more willing to forgo positive NPV projects, raise external funds, sell assets, or lay off sincere amounts of employees before cutting dividends. The asymmetry between dividend increases and decreases probably leads firms to restrain from issuing before having to resolve to the previously described in general unfavorable practices. Today managers are not so strict on payout ratios anymore. Furthermore, the speed of adjustment, by correcting dividends to their target, is not as high as it once was. This could be a result of the declined benefits of being close to the target or the higher cost of adjustment (Brav, Graham, Campbell, Harvey, and Michely, 2005). What should Paul Coghlan recommend to the board? All in all, if LT pursues to maximize shareholder value, it would not be advisable to increase dividends. Considering the current economic turmoil and the inflexible nature of dividend payments, dividend payments become undesirable. Additionally investing in new business opportunities would be beneficial for both the firm and the current shareholders. Although LT has not identified any positive NPV projects yet, there are opportunities in Asia, and therefore it would be wise for LT to return only part of its cash to the shareholders. They can best do this via a more flexible way such as special dividend or repurchases. Holding cash in the firm allows for a better credit rating when entering the capital market, when LT encounters a positive NPV project it wishes to invest in it can finance it partly by cash held and partly by debt financing. There is no ideal set up for cash returns but deriving from the advice of Rollins given in the case, it could be beneficial for LT to hold 1/4 of its cash as a cushion for economic turmoil, invest 1/4 of its cash in short-term securities to generate interest, hold 1/4 to be used in case of encountering good business opportunities, and return 1/4 to its shareholders via repurchases or a special dividend. This would still result in a $375m return for its shareholders.